This second edition provides information on recent advances in the science and technology of chocolate manufacture and the entire international cocoa industry. It provides detailed review on a wide range of topics including cocoa production, cocoa and chocolate manufacturing operations, sensory perception of chocolate quality, flavour release and perception, sugar replacement and alternative sweetening solutions in chocolate production, industrial manufacture of sugar–free chocolates as well as the nutrition and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption. The topics cover modern cocoa cultivation and production practices with special attention on cocoa bean composition, genotypic variations in the bean, post–harvest pre–treatments, fermentation and drying processes, and the biochemical basis of these operations. The scientific principles behind industrial chocolate manufacture are outlined with detailed explanations of the various stages of chocolate manufacturing including mixing, refining, conching and tempering. Other topics covered include the chemistry of flavour formation and development during cocoa processing and chocolate manufacture; volatile flavour compounds and their characteristics and identification; sensory descriptions and character; and flavour release and perception in chocolate. The nutritional and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption as well as the application of HACCP and other food safety management systems such as ISO 22,000 in the chocolate processing industry are also addressed. Additionally, detailed research on the influence of different raw materials and processing operations on the flavour and other quality characteristics of chocolates have been provided with scope for process optimization and improvement. The book is intended to be a desk reference for all those engaged in the business of making and using chocolate worldwide; confectionery and chocolate scientists in industry and academia; students and practising food scientists and technologists; nutritionists and other health professionals; and libraries of institutions where agriculture, food science and nutrition is studied and researched. INDICE: Preface, xix .Acknowledgements, xxi .About the author, xxiii .1 History, origin and taxonomy of cocoa, 1 .1.1 Introduction, 1 .1.2 History of cocoa, 2 .1.3 Taxonomy of cocoa, 5 .1.4 Morphological and varietal characteristics of cocoa, 6 .1.4.1 The cocoa plant, 6 .1.5 Varietal effects on cocoa bean flavour, 10 .1.6 The concept of this book, 15 .2 World cocoa production, processing and chocolate consumption pattern, 17 .2.1 Introduction, 17 .2.2 World production of cocoa, 17 .2.3 Major changes in world cocoa trade, 20 .2.4 Cocoa yield in producing countries, 22 .2.5 World cocoa grindings trends between 2005 2006 and 2014 2015, 23 .2.6 World stocks of cocoa beans, 26 .2.7 International cocoa price developments, 26 .2.8 Cocoa processing trends, 31 .2.9 Cocoa and chocolate consumption, 33 .2.9.1 Apparent cocoa consumption, 33 .2.9.2 World chocolate consumption, 34 .2.9.3 World consumption of chocolate products, 35 .2.9.4 World consumption of premium chocolate products, 38 .2.10 Fairtrade cocoa and chocolate in the modern confectionery industry, 39 .2.10.1 Sustainable fairtrade cocoa production, 39 .2.10.2 Future of the fairtrade cocoa and confectionery industry, 41 .2.11 The organic cocoa in chocolate confectionery industry, 42 .2.11.1 The global organic food industry, 42 .2.11.2 The organic cocoa industry, 43 .2.11.3 Consumption patterns of organic cocoa, 44 .2.11.4 Certification and market for organic cocoa, 45 .2.12 The changing chocolate market, 48 .3 Traditional and modern cocoa cultivation practices, 49 .3.1 Introduction, 49 .3.2 Environmental requirements for cocoa cultivation, 51 .3.2.1 Temperature, 51 .3.2.2 Rainfall, 52 .3.2.3 Soils and nutrition, 52 .3.3 Traditional cocoa cultivation practices, 53 .3.3.1 Growth and propagation, 53 .3.4 Modern cocoa cultivation practices using vegetative propagation, 54 .3.5 Establishment and shade, 54 .3.6 Flowering and pod development, 60 .3.7 Harvesting of cocoa pods, 64 .3.8 Pod breaking, 67 .3.9 The cocoa pod, 68 .3.10 Good agricultural practices in cocoa cultivation, 69 .3.10.1 Quality improvement practices, 69 .3.10.2 Weed control, 71 .3.10.3 Pruning, 71 .4 Cocoa diseases and pests and their effects on chocolate quality, 73 .4.1 Introduction, 73 .4.2 Major cocoa diseases, 73 .4.2.1 Cocoa swollen shoot virus disease (CSSVD), 73 .4.2.2 Black pod disease, 74 .4.2.3 Witches broom disease, 76 .4.3 Cocoa pests, 77 .4.3.1 Pod borers (capsids, cocoa thrips and mealy bugs), 77 .4.4 Cocoa crop protection, 79 .5 Cocoa bean composition and chocolate flavour development, 80 .5.1 Introduction, 80 .5.2 Bean composition and flavour precursor formation, 81 .5.2.1 Physical structure and chemical composition of the cocoa bean, 81 .5.2.2 Cocoa pulp: the fermentation substrate, 83 .5.2.3 Polyphenols and chocolate flavour quality, 85 .5.2.4 Effects of proteins and sugars on flavour precursor formation, 85 .5.3 Effects of genotype on cocoa bean flavour, 87 .5.4 Flavour development during post–harvest treatments of cocoa, 87 .5.4.1 Changes in biochemistry of the bean during flavour precursor formation in cocoa fermentation, 87 .5.4.2 Microbial succession and enzymatic activities during flavour precursor generation in cocoa fermentation, 90 .5.4.3 Drying, 94 .5.5 Conclusion, 98 .6 Cocoa processing technology, 102 .6.1 Introduction, 102 .6.2 Bean selection and quality criteria, 102 .6.2.1 Free fatty acid, 103 .6.3 Cocoa quality, grading and storage, 106 .6.4 Selection of bean blends and chocolate flavour quality, 107 .6.5 Steps in cocoa processing, 108 .6.5.1 Cleaning, breaking and winnowing, 108 .6.5.2 Sterilization, 109 .6.5.3 Alkalization, 109 .6.5.4 Roasting, 110 .6.5.5 Nib grinding and liquor treatment, 111 .6.5.6 Liquor pressing, 112 .6.5.7 Cake grinding (kibbling), 112 .6.5.8 Cocoa powder production, 112 .6.5.9 Cocoa butter chemistry, standards and quality characteristics, 112 .7 Industrial chocolate manufacture processes and factors influencing quality, 117 .7.1 Introduction, 117 .7.2 Chocolate manufacturing processes, 120 .7.2.1 Mixing, 120 .7.2.2 Refining, 121 .7.2.3 Conching, 123 .7.3 Tempering, lipid crystallization and continuous phase character during chocolate manufacture, 126 .7.4 Casting and moulding, 130 .7.5 Cooling, 130 .7.6 Demoulding, 130 .7.7 Wrapping/Packaging, 132 .7.8 Factors influencing rheological and textural qualities in chocolate, 132 .7.8.1 Particle size distribution, 132 .7.8.2 The role of fats, 142 .7.8.3 The role of sugar, 143 .7.8.4 The role of milk and other dairy components, 144 .7.8.5 The role of surfactants, 145 .7.8.6 Moisture and chocolate flow behaviour, 146 .7.9 Chocolate quality and defects, 146 .7.9.1 Chocolate quality, 146 .7.9.2 Chocolate defects, 150 .7.10 Conclusion and further research, 152 .8 The chemistry of flavour development during cocoa processing and chocolate manufacture, 154 .8.1 Introduction, 154 .8.2 Influence of bean selection on chocolate flavour quality, 154 .8.3 Effect of roasting, 155 .8.3.1 Maillard reactions aldol condensation, polymerization and cyclization, 159 .8.3.2 Effects of alkalization, 161 .8.4 Flavour development during chocolate manufacture, 162 .8.4.1 Conching, 162 .8.5 Key flavour compounds in milk chocolate, 163 .8.6 Key flavour compounds in dark chocolate, 163 .8.7 Conclusion, 169 .9 Alternative sweetening and bulking solutions in chocolate manufacture, 171 .9.1 Introduction, 171 .9.2 Types of sugar substitutes and their characteristics, 172 .9.3 High–potency sweeteners, 173 .9.3.1 Stevia rebaudioside A, 173 .9.3.2 Thaumatin, 176 .9.4 Bulk sweeteners, 178 .9.4.1 Polyols (sugar alcohols), 178 .9.4.2 Sucralose, 181 .9.4.3 Tagatose, 183 .9.4.4 Trehalose, 185 .9.4.5 Isomultulose, 187 .9.5 Low–digestible carbohydrate polymers, 188 .9.5.1 Polydextrose, 189 .9.5.2 Inulin and oligofructose, 191 .9.5.3 Maltodextrin, 193 .9.6 Laxation and low digestible carbohydrate polymers, 193 .9.7 Applicability and suitability of different sweeteners and carbohydrate polymers in chocolate processing, 194 .9.8 Importance of blending different sugar substitutes, 200 .10 Sensory character and flavour perception of chocolates, 202 .10.1 Summary and industrial relevance, 202 .10.2 Introduction, 203 .10.3 Sensory perception of quality in chocolates, 204 .10.3.1 Appearance, 208 .10.3.2 Texture, 208 .10.3.3 Taste, 209 .10.3.4 Flavour and aroma, 210 .10.4 Sensory assessment of chocolates, 211 .10.5 Factor influencing chocolate flavour, 212 .10.6 Flavour release and perception of sweetness in chocolate, 213 .10.7 Dynamism of flavour perception in chocolate, 215 .10.8 Retronasal flavour release and perception during chocolate consumption, 216 .10.9 Measurement of flavour release and intensity in chocolates, 218 .10.10 Electronic noses and tongues as online sensors for sensory assessment of chocolates, 221 .10.11 Conclusion, 222 .11 Nutritional and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption, 223 .11.1 Summary and significance, 223 .11.2 Introduction, 223 .11.3 Chemistry and composition of cocoa flavonoids, 225 .11.4 Chocolate types and their major nutritional constituents, 226 .11.5 Antioxidant properties and their mechanism of action, 229 .11.6 Effects on endothelial function, blood pressure and the cardiovascular system, 231 .11.7 Effects on insulin sensitivity and carcinogenic properties, 232 .11.8 Cocoa, chocolate and aphrodisiac properties, 233 .11.9 Conclusion, 234 .12 Processing effects on the rheological, textural and melting properties during chocolate manufacture, 236 .12.1 Summary and industrial relevance, 236 .12.2 Introduction, 237 .12.3 Materials and methods, 241 .12.3.1 Materials, 241 .12.3.2 Preparation of chocolate samples, 241 .12.3.3 Determination of particle size distribution, 242 .12.3.4 Rheological measurements, 242 .12.3.5 Tempering procedure, 244 .12.3.6 Texture measurements, 244 .12.3.7 Colour measurements of solid dark chocolate, 246 .12.3.8 Microstructure analysis, 247 .12.3.9 Determination of melting properties of dark chocolates, 248 .12.3.10 Experimental design and statistical analysis, 248 .12.4 Results and discussion, 249 .12.4.1 Particle size distribution of molten dark chocolate, 249 .12.4.2 Rheological properties of molten dark chocolate, 249 .12.5 Relationships between Casson model and ICA recommendations, 258 .12.6 Textural properties, 262 .12.6.1 Molten dark chocolate, 262 .12.6.2 Hardness of tempered dark chocolate, 266 .12.6.3 Colour measurements, 267 .12.6.4 Relationships between textural properties and appearance of dark chocolate, 268 .12.7 Microstructural properties of molten dark chocolate, 270 .12.8 Melting properties of dark chocolate, 274 .12.8.1 Effects of particle size distribution, 276 .12.8.2 Effects of fat content, 281 .12.8.3 Effects of lecithin, 282 .12.9 Relationships between rheological, textural and melting properties of dark chocolate, 284 .12.10 Conclusion, 294 .13 Tempering behaviour during chocolate manufacture: Effects of varying product matrices, 297 .13.1 Summary and industrial relevance, 297 .13.2 Introduction, 298 .13.3 Materials and methods, 300 .13.3.1 Materials, 300 .13.3.2 Tempering procedure, 300 .13.3.3 Determination of particle size distribution, 301 .13.3.4 Experimental design and statistical analysis, 301 .13.4 Results and discussion, 304 .13.4.1 Particle size distribution of dark chocolates, 304 .13.4.2 Effect of particle size distribution on tempering behaviour, 308 .13.4.3 Effect of fat content on tempering behaviour, 312 .13.5 Conclusion, 316 .14 Tempering and fat crystallization effects on chocolate quality, 317 .14.1 Summary and industrial relevance, 317 .14.2 Introduction, 318 .14.3 Materials and methods, 319 .14.3.1 Materials, 319 .14.3.2 Determination of particle size distribution, 320 .14.3.3 Tempering experiment, 320 .14.3.4 Texture measurements, 320 .14.3.5 Colour and gloss measurements, 321 .14.3.6 Image acquisition and capture, 321 .14.3.7 Determination of melting properties, 322 .14.3.8 Microstructural determinations, 322 .14.3.9 Scanning electron microscopy, 322 .14.3.10 Experimental design and statistical analysis, 323 .14.4 Results and discussion, 323 .14.4.1 Particle size distribution of dark chocolates, 323 .14.4.2 Fat crystallization behaviours during tempering of dark chocolate, 324 .14.4.3 Effect of temper regime and PSD on mechanical properties, 325 .14.4.4 Effect of temper regime and PSD on colour and gloss, 328 .14.4.5 Effect of temper regime and PSD on melting properties, 330 .14.4.6 Effect of temper regime on microstructure, 339 .14.4.7 Effect of temper regime on scanning electron microstructure, 339 .14.5 Conclusion, 343 .15 Fat bloom formation and development in chocolates, 345 .15.1 Summary and industrial relevance, 345 .15.2 Introduction, 346 .15.3 Materials and methods, 347 .15.3.1 Materials, 347 .15.3.2 Determination of particle size distribution, 348 .15.3.3 Tempering experiment, 348 .15.3.4 Texture measurements, 349 .15.3.5 Surface colour and gloss measurements, 349 .15.3.6 Determination of melting properties, 349 .15.3.7 Microstructural determinations, 350 .15.3.8 Experimental design and statistical analysis, 350 .15.4 Results and discussion, 350 .15.4.1 Particle size distribution of dark chocolates, 350 .15.4.2 Changes in textural properties during blooming, 351 .15.4.3 Changes in appearance (Surface Whiteness and Gloss) during blooming, 353 .15.4.4 Changes in melting behaviour during blooming, 357 .15.4.5 Changes in microstructure during blooming, 359 .15.5 Conclusion, 364 .16 Matrix effects on flavour volatiles character and release in chocolates, 365 .16.1 Summary and industrial relevance, 365 .16.2 Introduction, 365 .16.3 Materials and methods, 367 .16.3.1 Materials, 367 .16.3.2 Tempering procedure, 368 .16.3.3 Determination of particle size distribution, 368 .16.3.4 Quantification of flavour volatiles by gas chromatography, 368 .16.3.5 Gas chromatography olfactometry analytical conditions, 369 .16.3.6 Experimental design and statistical analysis, 369 .16.4 Results and discussion, 369 .16.4.1 Particle size distribution of dark chocolates, 369 .16.4.2 Characterization of flavour compounds in dark chocolates, 370 .16.4.3 Effects of particle size distribution on flavour volatile release, 374 .16.4.4 Effects of fat content on flavour volatile release, 374 .16.4.5 Relating flavour volatiles release to particle size distribution and fat content: product spaces, 379 .16.5 Conclusion, 381 .17 Process optimization and product quality characteristics during sugar–free chocolate manufacture, 382 .17.1 Summary and industrial relevance, 382 .17.2 Introduction, 382 .17.3 Materials and methods, 384 .17.3.1 Raw materials, 384 .17.3.2 Experimental design and sample preparation, 384 .17.3.3 Analytical methods, 385 .17.4 Results and discussion, 387 .17.4.1 Rheological properties, 390 .17.4.2 Casson plastic viscosity, 390 .17.4.3 Casson yield stress, 392 .17.4.4 Microscopy, 393 .17.4.5 Colour, 395 .17.4.6 Hardness, 395 .17.4.7 Moisture, 396 .17.5 Optimization of chocolate formulation, 396 .17.6 Conclusion, 397 .18 Food safety management systems in chocolate processing, 399 .18.1 Introduction, 399 .18.2 The HACCP system, 400 .18.2.1 HACCP principles, 401 .18.2.2 HACCP plan, 402 .18.2.3 Application of the HACCP system, 405 .18.2.4 Advantages of HACCP, 405 .18.2.5 Shortfalls of HACCP, 406 .18.3 ISO 22000 approach, 406 .18.3.1 Advantages of ISO 22000, 407 .18.3.2 Comparison of ISO 22000 with HACCP, 408 .18.4 Hazards associated with chocolate processing, 408 .18.4.1 Physical hazards, 408 .18.4.2 Chemical hazards, 409 .18.4.3 Microbiological hazards, 411 .18.5 Critical operations in cocoa processing and chocolate manufacture, 413 .18.5.1 Cleaning, 413 .18.5.2 Roasting, 413 .18.5.3 Breaking and winnowing, 414 .18.5.4 Refining, 414 .18.5.5 Conching, 414 .18.5.6 Tempering, 415 .18.6 Conclusion, 415 .19 Application of ISO 22000 and hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) in chocolate processing, 416 .19.1 Summary and industrial relevance, 416 .19.2 Introduction, 416 .19.2.1 Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP), 417 .19.2.2 HACCP principles, 418 .19.2.3 ISO 22000, 419 .19.3 Hazards associated with chocolate processing, 419 .19.3.1 Physical hazards, 420 .19.3.2 Chemical hazards, 421 .19.3.3 Microbiological hazards, 421 .19.4 Preprocessing operations, 421 .19.5 Cocoa processing into semi–finished products, 422 .19.5.1 Bean receipt and cleaning CCP1, 422 .19.5.2 Silos (Storage) CCP2, 422 .19.5.3 De–bacterizer CCP3, 422 .19.5.4 The roasting process CCP4, 422 .19.5.5 Breaking and winnowing, 424 .19.5.6 Milling, 424 .19.5.7 Storage and conditioning CCP5, 424 .19.5.8 Pressing CCP6, 425 .19.5.9 Centrifugation and filtration CCP7, 425 .19.5.10 Kibbling and pulverization, 425 .19.6 Milk chocolate manufacturing operations, 425 .19.6.1 Raw materials reception CCP1, 425 .19.6.2 Mixing CCP2, 425 .19.6.3 Refining, 426 .19.6.4 Conching, 427 .19.6.5 Tempering, 427 .19.6.6 Casting and moulding CCP3, 428 .19.6.7 Cooling, 428 .19.6.8 Demoulding, 428 .19.6.9 Wrapping/Packaging CCP4, 429 .19.7 Hazard analysis, 429 .19.7.1 Determination of critical control points, 435 .19.7.2 Determination of prerequisite programmes, 435 .19.8 Conclusion, 435 .20 Conclusions and industrial applications, 441 .20.1 Introduction, 441 .20.2 Conclusions: Structure properties relationships in chocolate manufacture, 441 .20.3 Conclusions: Tempering behaviour from response surface methodology, 443 .20.4 Conclusions: Effects of tempering and fat crystallization on microstructure and physical properties, 444 .20.5 Conclusions: Fat bloom formation and development with under–tempering, 445 .20.6 Conclusions: Flavour volatiles and matrix effects related to variations in PSD and fat content, 445 .20.7 Conclusions: Process optimization and product quality characteristics of sugar–free chocolates, 446 .20.8 Industrial relevance and applications of research findings in this book, 447 .20.9 Recommendations for further research studies, 448 .References, 450 .Appendix 1 Abbreviations, 487 .Appendix 2 Acronyms and websites of organizations related to the cocoa and chocolate industry, 490 .Appendix 3 Glossary of cocoa and chocolate terminologies, 492 .Index, 497
- ISBN: 978-1-118-91378-9
- Editorial: Wiley–Blackwell
- Encuadernacion: Cartoné
- Páginas: 536
- Fecha Publicación: 03/06/2016
- Nº Volúmenes: 1
- Idioma: Inglés