Plant Environment Interaction: Responses and Approaches to Mitigate Stress

The increase in global population, urbanization and industrialization is resulting in the conversion of cultivated land into wasteland. Providing food from these limited resources to an ever–increasing population is one of the biggest challenges that present agriculturalists and plant scientists are facing. Environmental stresses make this situation even graver. Plants on which mankind is directly or indirectly dependent exhibit various mechanisms for their survival. Adaptability of the plants to changing environment is a matter of concern for plant biologists trying to reach the goal of food security. Despite the induction of several tolerance mechanisms, sensitive plants often fail to withstand these environmental extremes. Using new technological approaches has become essential and imperative.Plant–Environment Interaction: Responses and Approaches to Mitigate Stress throws light on the changing environment and the sustainability of plants under these conditions. It contains the most up–to–date research and comprehensive detailed discussions in plant physiology, climate change, agronomy and forestry, sometimes from a molecular point of view, to convey in–depth understanding of the effects of environmental stress in plants, their responses to the environment, how to mitigate the negative effects and improve yield under stress. This edited volume is written by expert plant biologists from around the world, providing invaluable knowledge to graduate and undergraduate students in plant biochemistry, food chemistry, plant physiology, molecular biology, plant biotechnology, and environmental sciences. This book updates scientists and researchers with the very latest information and sustainable methods used for stress tolerance, which will also be of considerable interest to plant based companies and institutions concerned with the campaign of food security. INDICE: Preface to the fifth edition .Preface to the fourth edition .Preface to the third edition .Preface to the second edition .Preface to the first edition .Abbreviations .1 The origin and development of the oil palm industry .1.1 Origin of the oil palm .1.1.1 Physical evidence .1.1.2 Historical evidence .1.1.3 Natural habitat .1.1.4 The American oil palm .1.2 The oil palm in Africa .1.2.1 Geographical distribution .1.2.2 African palm grove oil production .1.2.3 Early trade .1.3 Development of the oil palm plantation industry .1.3.1 The African plantation industry .1.3.2 The Deli palm .1.3.3 The Asian plantation industry .1.3.4 The oil palm in America .1.4 Development of the industry since 1950 .1.4.1 General .1.4.2 Price structures and competitiveness .1.4.3 Single country developments Asia .1.4.4 Africa .1.4.5 America .1.5 Development methods .1.5.1 Main mechanisms of oil palm development .1.5.2 Plantations .1.5.3 Smallholders .1.5.4 Research .1.5.5 Environmental and social aspects .1.6 Trade in and use of oil palm products .1.6.1 Trade in oil palm products .1.6.2 Uses of oil palm products .1.6.3 The conflict over tropical oils .1.6.4 The future .2 The classification and morphology of the oil palm .2.1 Classification of oil palms .2.2 The African oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq. .2.2.1 Morphology and growth .2.2.1.1 The seed .2.2.1.2 The seedling .2.2.1.3 Development of the stem and stem apex .2.2.1.4 The leaf .2.2.1.5 The root system .2.2.1.6 Oil palm chromosomes .2.2.2 Flowering and fruiting .2.2.2.1 Inflorescences .2.2.2.2 The female inflorescence and flower .2.2.2.3 The male inflorescence and flower .2.2.2.4 Mixed inflorescences .2.2.2.5 Pollination .2.2.2.6 The fruit .2.2.2.7 The fruit bunch .2.3 The American oil palm, Elaeis oleifera (HBK) Cortes .2.3.1 Distribution .2.3.2 Morphology .2.3.3 Uses .2.4 The Elaeis guineensis x Elaeis oleifera hybrid .3 The climate of the oil palm–growing regions .3.1 Temperature .3.2 Rainfall, evaporation and water balance .3.2.1 The supply of water by the soil .3.2.2 Flooding .3.2.3 Water evaporation terms .3.2.4 The water balance .3.2.5 Water deficits .3.2.6 Water relations and palm yield .3.3 Radiation and its effects .3.4 Total climate and oil palm growth .3.4.1 Agroclimatic zones and yield .3.4.2 Total climatic requirements for the oil palm .3.4.3 Comparison between regions .3.4.4 Longer term weather variations .4 The soils of the oil palm–growing regions .4.1 Soil classification in the equatorial tropics .4.1.1 Types of classification .4.1.2 General–purpose classifications .4.1.3 Spatial variation and precision agriculture .4.1.4 Soil classification in South–east Asia .4.2 Soil characteristics important for the oil palm .4.2.1 System of Olvin .4.2.2 System of Paramananthan .4.2.3 Value of soil survey .4.3 Soil characteristics unfavourable for oil palm .4.3.1 Poorly drained non–acid sulphate soils .4.3.2 Acid sulphate soils .4.3.3 Saline soils .4.3.4 Very weathered and leached soils .4.3.5 Deep sandy soils .4.3.6 Volcanic ash soils .4.3.7 Lateritic soils .4.3.8 Hilly and sloping soils – topography problems .4.3.9 Phosphate limits .4.4 Histosols and peats .4.4.1 Peat soil origins and distribution .4.4.2 Types of peat soil .4.4.3 Peat degradation .4.4.4 Management of oil palm on peat .4.5 Soils of Asia .4.5.1 Malaysian soils .4.5.2 Indonesian soils .4.6 Soils of Africa .4.6.1 Nigerian soils .4.6.2 Other West African soils .4.6.3 Soils of the Democratic Republic of Congo .4.7 Soils of America .5 Growth, flowering and yield .5.1 Analysis of plant growth .5.1.1 Background .5.1.2 Dry matter production .5.1.3 Non–destructive methods of measurement .5.1.4 Components of dry matter production .5.1.4.1 Incident radiation .5.1.4.2 Light interception .5.1.4.3 Photosynthesis and the conversion coefficient .5.1.4.4 Partitioning of dry matter5.2 Vegetative growth and partitioning of dry matter .5.2.1 Vegetative growth .5.2.2 Partitioning between vegetative growth and bunch production .5.2.3 Conclusions .5.3 Environmental and management factors .5.3.1 Effects of planting density .5.3.2 Effects of fertilisers .5.3.3 Water .5.3.4 Temperature .5.3.5 Carbon dioxide .5.3.6 Palm age .5.3.7 Pruning .5.3.8 Disbudding (ablation) .5.3.9 Genetic variation .5.4 Flowering .5.4.1 Stages in inflorescence development .5.4.2 Fruiting activity .5.4.3 Inflorescence initiation .5.4.4 Sex ratio .5.4.5 Inflorescence abortion .5.4.6 Bunch failure .5.4.7 Bunch weight .5.4.8 Rates of inflorescence and bunch development .5.4.9 Conclusions .5.5 Yield .5.5.1 Yield of bunches .5.5.2 Effects of climate and weather on yield of bunches .5.5.3 Fruit development and ripening .5.5.4 Environmental effects on oil content of the bunch .5.5.5 Yield forecasting .5.5.6 Crop modelling .6 Selection and breeding .6.1 History of selection .6.1.1 Indonesia and Malaysia .6.1.1.1 Deli dura in Sumatra .6.1.1.2 Deli dura in Malaysia .6.1.1.3 Tenera and pisifera in Sumatra .6.1.1.4 Tenera and pisifera in Malaysia .6.1.2 Congo .6.1.3 West Africa .6.1.4 Latin America .6.1.5 The emergence of the dura x pisifera cross .6.1.6 Current breeding and seed production programmes .6.1.7 Prospection and conservation .6.2 Techniques used in oil palm breeding and selection .6.2.1 Controlled pollination .6.2.2 Trial designs and crossing programmes .6.2.3 Yield records and generation time .6.2.4 Bunch analysis .6.2.5 Growth measurements .6.2.6 Genetic analysis in breeding trials .6.2.7 Selection at the immature stage .6.2.8 Molecular markers in oil palm breeding .6.3 Variation and inheritance .6.3.1 Sources of variation .6.3.2 Bunch yield and its components .6.3.3 Inheritance of fruit characters .6.3.3.1 Variation in shell thickness .6.3.3.2 Oil and kernel to bunch and their components .6.3.3.3 Other fruit characters .6.3.3.4 Fruit abscission .6.3.4 Vegetative characters .6.3.5 Disease resistance .6.3.6 Stress tolerance .6.3.7 Oil composition .6.4 Methods of selection and breeding .6.4.1 Breeding objectives .6.4.2 Choice of breeding method .6.4.2.1 Reciprocal recurrent selection .6.4.2.2 Family and individual selection .6.4.2.3 Pisifera selection .6.4.2.4 Use of breeding values .6.4.2.5 Inbred lines .6.4.3 Inbreeding depression and heterosis .6.4.4 Competition and planting density .6.4.5 Breeding and clonal propagation .6.5 Selection and breeding in practice .6.5.1 Results of breeding work .6.5.1.1 Progeny testing .6.5.1.2 Comparison of Avros and other origins .6.5.1.3 Comparison of La Mé and Yangambi .6.5.1.4 The Deli dura .6.5.1.5 Fertile pisiferas .6.5.1.6 Interspecific hybrids .6.5.1.7 Genotype x environment interactions .6.5.2 Progress achieved through breeding .6.5.2.1 Theoretical selection progress .6.5.2.2 Progress in the Deli dura population .6.5.2.3 Progress in the CIRAD programme .6.5.2.4 Conclusions .6.6 Oil palm improvement in the future .7 Vegetative propagation and biotechnology .7.1 History of oil palm tissue culture .7.2 Tissue culture methods .7.2.1 Culture on solid media .7.2.2 Storage of oil palm cultures .7.2.3 Physiology and biochemistry of plants in culture .7.3 Abnormal flowering, bunch failure and other problems .7.3.1 Mantled fruit .7.3.2 Other abnormalities .7.3.3 Testing for abnormalities .7.4 Clone testing .7.4.1 Ortet selection .7.4.2 Clone yields .7.4.3 Clone adaptability .7.5 The future for oil palm clonal propagation .7.5.1 New tissue culture methods .7.5.2 Recycling through culture .7.5.3 Commercial developments .7.6 Other aspects of oil palm biotechnology .7.6.1 Other tissue culture techniques .7.6.2 Transformation .7.6.3 Conclusions .8 Seed germination and nurseries .8.1 Seed germination .8.1.1 The physiology of germination .8.1.2 Germination under natural conditions .8.1.3 Seed handling .8.1.4 Methods of germination .8.1.5 Supply of seed to plantations .8.2 Nurseries .8.2.1 The prenursery .8.2.2 The main nursery .8.2.3 Advanced planting material .8.2.4 Nursery pests and diseases .8.2.5 Nursery costs .9 Site selection and land preparation .9.1 Digital technology and the oil palm plantation .9.2 Choice of site for oil palm planting .9.2.1 General .9.2.2 Climate requirements .9.2.3 Soil requirements .9.2.3.1 Intensity and method of soil survey .9.2.3.2 Topography, slope and soil type .9.2.3.3 Rooting depth .9.2.3.4 Moisture availability .9.2.3.5 Soil fertility .9.2.3.6 Soil sustainability and long–term changes .9.2.3.7 Decision factors .9.2.4 Previous vegetation and use .9.2.5 Land evaluation .9.2.6 Site yield potential .9.2.7 Environmental impact .9.3 Plantation layout .9.3.1 General survey and environmental issues .9.3.2 Road systems .9.3.3 Drainage systems .9.3.4 Irrigation systems .9.4 Field preparation .9.4.1 General .9.4.2 Burning or zero–burning .9.4.3 Operations in land clearing .9.4.4 Replanting from oil palms .9.4.4.1 The decision to replant .9.4.4.2 Replanting methods .9.4.4.3 Underplanting the old stand .9.4.4.4 Detailed field procedures .9.4.5 Hilly land: platforms and terraces .9.4.6 Planting of peat soils .9.4.7 Low–lying, flood–prone areas .9.5 Uses of covers and interrows .9.5.1 General .9.5.2 Leguminous and other covers .9.5.3 Agricultural uses of interrows .10 The establishment of oil palms in the field .10.1 Planting in the field .10.1.1 Stage of seedling development .10.1.2 Method of transplanting .10.1.3 Time of transplanting .10.1.4 Cultural practices after transplanting .10.1.5 Replacement of missing palms .10.2 Shortening the immature period .10.2.1 Advanced planting material .10.3 Spacing of plants in the field .10.3.1 Effects of plant spacing on growth and yield .10.3.2 Agricultural and economic optima .10.3.3 Triangular planting .10.3.4 Plantings other than triangular .10.3.5 Progeny differences .10.3.6 Thinning .10.4 Practical aspects of field establishment .10.4.1 Lining .10.4.2 Costs .11 Care and maintenance of oil palms .11.1 Care of palms and plant cover .11.1.1 Value of function of covers .11.1.2 Maintenance of young palms .11.1.2.1 Management of young palms .11.1.2.2 Establishment and maintenance of natural cover .11.1.2.3 Establishment and maintenance of legume cover .11.1.2.4 Nitrogen fixation by cover plants .11.1.3 Maintenance of mature plantations .11.1.4 Cultivation and intercropping .11.1.5 Labour requirements for field operations .11.2 Field mechanisation .11.2.1 Mechanisation of fertiliser spreading .11.2.2 Weed and pest control .11.2.3 Soil compaction .11.3 Irrigation .11.3.1 General .11.3.2 Methods of estimating irrigation requirements .11.3.3 Methods of irrigation .11.3.4 Profitability of irrigation .11.4 Assisted pollination .11.5 Fruit bunch harvesting .11.5.1 General .11.5.2 Ablation .11.5.3 Harvesting of young palms .11.5.4 Harvesting of mature palms .11.5.5 Harvest round frequency and criteria of ripeness .11.5.6 Bunch transport in the field .11.5.7 Transport from field to mill .11.5.8 Need for a harvesting machine .11.6 Oil extraction ratio .11.6.1 Factors affecting the oil extraction ratio .11.6.2 Decline of oil extraction ratio in Peninsular Malaysia .11.6.3 Monitoring oil extraction ratio .11.7 Palm age and replanting .11.7.1 Palm age problems and the need for replanting .11.7.2 The present situation in Malaysia .11.8 Site yield potentials and plantation management .11.8.1 Definition of yield potentials .11.8.2 Site yield potential .11.8.3 Principles and calculation of site yield potential .11.8.4 Action with fields producing less than the site yield potential .11.8.5 The Best Management Practice approach .11.8.6 Remote sensing of palm conditions .11.9 Smallholder plantations .12 Mineral nutrition of oil palms .12.1 General principles of plant nutrition .12.1.1 Introduction .12.1.2 Essential elements .12.1.3 Plant demand 12.1.4 Nutrient content of palms, nutrient budgets and nutrient balance .12.2 Palm uptake systems .12.2.1 Root system of the oil palm .12.2.1.1 Physiology of nutrient uptake .12.2.1.2 Quantity and position of oil palm root .12.2.1.3 Root properties and nutrient uptake .12.2.2 Mycorrhizal infection .12.2.3 Rhizosphere relations of the oil palm .12.3 Nutrient deficiency and its control: field experiments .12.3.1 Field experimentation: mathematical expression and treatment .12.3.2 Field experimentation practice .12.3.2.1 Practical considerations .12.3.2.2 Multiple nutrient trials and factorial designs .12.3.2.3 Economics of applying fertiliser .12.3.2.4 Nutrients and bunch composition .12.3.3 Field experiment results .12.4 Nutrient deficiency and its control: visual symptoms and leaf analysis .12.4.1 Visual symptoms of deficiency in oil palms .12.4.2 Plant composition .12.4.3 Leaf analysis in practice .12.4.4 Factors affecting critical levels .12.4.5 Chlorine effects in the oil palm .12.4.6 Cation antagonism .12.5 Soil composition and plant nutrition .12.5.1 Potassium .12.5.2 Soil analysis and its uses .12.5.3 Identification of likely deficiencies .12.5.4 Calculation fertiliser applications .12.6 Practical systems for fertiliser assessment .12.6.1 Nutrient balance approach .12.6.1.1 Nutrient balances .12.6.1.2 Growth demand .12.6.1.3 Deficiency demand .12.6.1.4 Fertiliser efficiency in a palm plantation .12.6.1.5 Nutrient uptake modelling .12.6.2 INFERS system .12.6.2.1 Structure of INFERS .12.6.2.2 The nutrient balance .12.6.2.3 Detailed application: nutrient demands .12.6.2.4 Detailed application: environmental losses .12.6.2.5 Supply from different soil types in INFERS .12.6.2.6 General research to support INFERS .12.6.3 French systems .12.6.4 Foster (PORIM) fertiliser recommendation systems .12.6.4.1 General structure .12.6.4.2 Foster method I: yields without fertiliser .12.6.4.3 Foster method I: field experiment data, yield response, and predicted site characteristics .12.6.4.4 Foster method III: leaf analysis .12.6.4.5 Total leaf cations in leaf analysis .12.6.4.6 Foster method IV .12.6.4.7 Soil analysis systems .12.7 Recycling and losses of nutrients .12.7.1 Replanting and the nutrients in the old stand .12.7.2 Uses of palm wastes .12.7.3 Consequences of removal of biomass .12.7.4 Loss mechanisms of nutrients .12.7.5 Soil changes during the life of a plantation .12.8 Deficiencies and toxicities in special and unusual soils .12.8.1 Acid sulphate soils .12.8.2 Volcanic soils .12.8.3 Coastal alluvial soils .12.8.4 Peat soils .12.8.5 Trace element toxicities .12.8.6 Aluminium .12.9 Practical management of fertilisers .12.9.1 Planting density and palm age .12.9.2 Fertiliser materials .12.9.3 Methods and times of application .12.9.4 Reducing fertiliser costs .12.9.5 Conclusions .13 Diseases of the oil palm .13.1 Diseases of germinating seeds .13.2 Seedling diseases .13.2.1 Cercospora leaf spot, or freckle .13.2.2 Other seedling leaf diseases .13.2.3 Seedling spear and bud rots .13.2.4 Seedling root diseases: blast .13.3 Adult palm leaf diseases and disorders .13.3.1 Crown disease .13.3.2 Leaf wither, Pestalotiopsis leaf spot or grey leaf blight .13.3.3 White stripe .13.3.4 Leaf mottle (mancha anular) .13.3.5 Minor leaf diseases .13.4 Stem and root diseases .13.4.1 Dry basal rot .13.4.2 Fusarium wilt or vascular wilt .13.4.2.1 Symptoms .13.4.2.2 Cause .13.4.2.3 Distribution .13.4.2.4 Incidence and spread of the disease .13.4.2.5 Effects on yield .13.4.2.6 Physiology of diseased palms .13.4.2.7 Chronic and acute wilt .13.4.2.8 Control .13.4.2.9 Breeding for resistance .13.4.2.10 Symptomless infection .13.4.2.11 Plant quarantine .13.4.2.12 Conclusion .13.4.3 Ganoderma trunk rot or basal stem rot .13.4.3.1 Symptoms .13.4.3.2 Cause .13.4.3.3 Distribution .13.4.3.4 Spread of the disease .13.4.3.5 Predisposing factors .13.4.3.6 Effects on yield .13.4.3.7 Control at time of replanting .13.4.3.8 Other methods of control .13.4.3.9 Detection of diseased palms .13.4.3.10 Breeding for resistance .13.4.2.11 Conclusion .13.4.4 Marchitez sorpresiva, sudden wither or sudden wilt .13.4.5 Marchitez letal, lethal wilt or Bajo Upia wilt .13.4.6 Upper stem rot .13.4.7 Red ring disease .13.5 Diseases of the bud or stem apex .13.5.1 Spear rot–little leaf disease .13.5.2 Fatal yellowing or lethal bud rot (pudrición del cogollo or PC) .13.5.2.1 Symptoms .13.5.2.2 Cause .13.5.2.3 Predisposing factors .13.5.2.4 Effects on yield .13.5.2.5 Control .13.5.2.6 Breeding for resistance .13.5.2.7 Conclusions .13.6 Diseases of the bunches and fruit .13.7 Other abnormal conditions .13.8 Plant quarantine .14 Pests of the oil palm .14.1 Integrated pest management .14.1.1 Pest ecology .14.1.2 Action thresholds .14.1.3 Census systems .14.1.4 Control measures .14.2 Nursery pests .14.3 Leaf pests of immature palms – African spear borer .14.4 Stem damage to young palms .14.4.1 Oryctes species (Dynastinae): rhinoceros beetle .14.4.2 Strategus aloeus (Dynastinae) .14.5 Leaf pests of mature palms .14.5.1 Effects on yield .14.5.2 Nettle and slug caterpillars .14.5.3 Bagworms .14.5.4 Other caterpillars .14.5.5 Grasshoppers .14.5.6 Leaf miner, Coelaenomenodera lameensis .14.6 Stem pests of mature palms .14.6.1 Rhynchophorus species (Curculionidae): palm weevils .14.6.2 Termites .14.7 Root pests – Oil palm root miner .14.8 Pests attacking fruit and bunches .14.8.1 Oil palm bunch moth .14.8.2 Eupalamides cyparissias (Castniidae): oil palm bunch miner .14.9 Mammals and birds as pests .14.9.1 Rats .14.9.1.1 Distribution .14.9.1.2 Damage .14.9.1.3 Control .14.9.1.4 Conclusions .14.9.2 Other mammals .14.9.3 Birds .14.10 Insect vectors of diseases .14.11 Pests of other components of the oil palm agroecosystem .14.11.1 Pests attacking pollinating weevils .14.11.2 Pests attacking legume cover crops .14.11.3 Other pests .14.11.4 Biological control of weeds .15 The products of the oil palm and their extraction .15.1 Palm oil products and their chemical structure .15.1.1 Palm oil composition .15.1.2 Fatty acid composition and structure .15.1.3 Triglyceride composition and structure .15.1.4 Non–triglyceride components .15.2 Nut composition .15.2.1 Kernel composition and structure .15.2.2 Kernel oil composition and chemical structure .15.3 Oil synthesis and breakdown in the fruit .15.4 Extraction of palm products .15.4.1 The extraction process .15.4.2 Extraction of palm oil and kernels by traditional methods .15.4.3 The palm oil mill .15.4.3.1 Fruit reception .15.4.3.2 Sterilisation .15.4.3.3 Stripping .15.4.3.4 Digestion .15.4.3.5 Oil extraction .15.4.3.6 Clarification, drying and storage .15.4.3.7 Kernel handling .15.4.4 Small–scale mills .15.4.5 Mill operation .15.4.5.1 Process control .15.4.5.2 Economics of a palm oil mill .15.4.6 Quality control .15.4.7 Extraction of minor components .15.4.8 Waste products .15.5 Further processing of oil palm products .15.5.1 Refining of palm oil .15.5.2 Processing of kernels .15.6 Other palm products .15.6.1 Biomass .15.6.2 Palm wine .15.6.3 Animal feed .16 Marketing, economics, end use and human health .16.1 Palm oil marketing .16.1.1 International trade .16.1.2 Local consumption .16.1.3  Factors causing distortion of markets .16.1.4  Sustainable palm oil .16.2 Production costs .16.2.1 Palm oil production costs .16.2.2 Production costs of competing oils .16.3 Uses of palm oil and palm kernel oil .16.3.1 Importance of oil composition .16.3.2 Range of palm oil and kernel oil products .16.3.3 Processing of vegetable oils .16.3.4 Use of palm oil for edible purposes .16.3.5 Palm kernel oil .16.3.6 Non–food uses of palm oil and kernel oil .16.4 Palm oil and human health .16.4.1 Oils and fats in human nutrition .16.4.2 Effects of palm oil in the diet .16.4.3 Minor constituents of palm oil .16.4.4 Functional foods .16.5 Conclusions .17 Oil palm and climate change .17.1 Climate change .17.1.1 Certainties .17.1.2 Computer models of climate .17.1.3 Recent trends in climate .17.1.4 Projections for oil palm growing regions .17.2 The role of oil palm in climate change .17.2.1 Negative effects of oil palm cultivation .17.2.2 Benefits of oil palm cultivation .17.2.3 Carbon balance .17.2.3.1 Carbon balance of palm oil production .17.2.3.2 Land use change .17.2.3.3 Oil palms on peat .17.2.3.4 Indirect land use change .17.3 Effects of climate change on oil palm .17.3.1 Rising carbon dioxide .17.3.2 Rising temperature .17.3.3 Changes in rainfall .17.3.4 Rising sea level .17.3.5 Economics .18 Biofuels .18.1 Biofuel from oil palm .18.1.1 Biomass .18.1.2 Biogas from liquid effluent .18.1.3 Crude palm oil as fuel .18.2 Biodiesel from palm oil .18.2.1 Transesterification methods .18.2.2 Characteristics of palm–derived biofuels .18.2.3 Energy balance .18.2.4 Carbon balance .18.2.5 Carbon pay–back times .18.3 Politics and ethics of biofuel production .18.3.1 Economics, subsidies and government directives .18.3.2 Long term potential for biodiesel production .18.3.3 Biofuel and food supplies .18.3.4 Other ethical considerations .18.3.5 Fuel security .18.4 Conclusion .19 Oil palm and sustainability .19.1 The need for sustainability .19.1.1 Campaigns against palm oil .19.1.2  The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil .19.1.3  Other sustainability criteria .19.2 Oil palm expansion and deforestation .19.2.1 Rates of expansion and forest loss .19.2.2 Definition of forest .19.2.3 Biodiversity .19.2.4 Fire .19.2.5 Economic aspects .19.3 Biodiversity in plantations .19.3.1 Relative value of oil palm for biodiversity .19.3.2 Increasing biodiversity in plantations .19.3.3 Land sparing or land sharing? .19.3.4 Conclusions .19.4 Social aspects of oil palm development .19.4.1 Land rights .19.4.2 Economic benefits .19.4.3 Problems for smallholders .19.5 Palm oil and food supplies .19.5.1 Future vegetable oil demand .19.5.2 Environmental costs of future food production .20 Concluding remarks .20.1 Future demand for palm oil .20.2 Future yields .20.3 Sustainability .Reference list and index of citations .Index

• ISBN: 978-1-119-08099-2
• Editorial: Wiley–Blackwell
• Encuadernacion: Cartoné
• Páginas: 368
• Fecha Publicación: 18/01/2016
• Nº Volúmenes: 1
• Idioma: Inglés